• Edgar Cayce Complete Readings Pdf Free Download

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Edgar Cayce (/ˈkeɪsiː/; March 18, 1877 – January 3, 1945) was an American clairvoyant who answered questions on subjects as varied as healing, reincarnation, wars, Atlantis, and future events while allegedly asleep. A biographer gave him the nickname, The Sleeping Prophet. A nonprofit organization, the Association for Research and Enlightenment,^[1] was founded to facilitate the study of Cayce's work.

Some consider him the true founder and a principal source of the most characteristic beliefs of the New Age movement.^[2]

Cayce is also notable for his contributions to the notions of diet and health, particularly the issues of food combining, acid/alkaline diet, and the therapeutic use of food.

• 1Biography
• 3Supporters
• 4Controversy and criticism

Biography[edit]

Early life[edit]

Edgar Cayce was born on March 18, 1877, near Beverly, south of Hopkinsville, Kentucky. He was one of six children of farmers Carrie Elizabeth (née Major)^[3] and Leslie Burr Cayce.^[4] As a child, he played with the 'little folk'^[5] and was alleged to have seen his deceased grandfather. He regarded them all as incorporeal because he could see through them if he looked hard enough.^{[citation needed]} However, he found it very difficult to keep his mind on his lessons at school.^[6]

He was taken to church when he was 10, and from then he read the Bible, becoming engrossed, and completing a dozen readings by the time he was 12.^{[citation needed]} In May 1889, while reading the Bible in his hut in the woods, he 'saw' a woman with wings who told him that his prayers were answered, and asked him what he wanted most of all. He was frightened, but he said that most of all he wanted to help others, especially sick children. He decided he would like to be a missionary.^[7]

The next night, after a complaint from the school teacher, his father ruthlessly tested him for spelling, eventually knocking him out of his chair with exasperation. At that point, Cayce 'heard' the voice of the lady who had appeared the day before. She told him that if he could sleep a little 'they' could help him. He begged for a rest and put his head on the spelling book. When his father came back into the room and woke him up, he knew all the answers. In fact, he could repeat anything in the book. His father thought he had been fooling before and knocked him out of the chair again. Eventually, Cayce used all his school books that way.^[8]

By 1892, the teacher regarded Cayce as his best student. On being questioned, Cayce told the teacher that he saw pictures of the pages in the books. His father became proud of this accomplishment and spread it around, resulting in Cayce becoming 'different' from his peers.^[9]

Shortly after this, Cayce exhibited an ability to diagnose in his sleep. He was struck on the base of the spine by a ball in a school game, after which he began to act very strangely, and eventually was put to bed. He went to sleep and diagnosed the cure, which his family prepared and which cured him as he slept. His father boasted that his son was, 'the greatest fellow in the world when he's asleep.'^[10] However, this ability was not demonstrated again for several years.^[11]

Edgar Cayce Complete Readings Pdf Free Download

Cayce's uncommon personality is also shown in an unusual incident in which he rode a certain mule back to the farmhouse at the end of a work day. This stunned everyone there, as the mule could not be ridden. The owner, thinking it may be time to break the animal in again, attempted to mount it but was immediately thrown off. Cayce left for his family in the city that evening.^[12]

1893–1912: Kentucky period[edit]

In December 1893, the Cayce family moved to Hopkinsville, Kentucky, and occupied 705 West Seventh on the southeast corner of Seventh and Young Streets. During this time, Cayce received an eighth-grade education, is said by the Association for Research and Enlightenment to have developed psychic abilities,^[13] and left the family farm to pursue various forms of employment.

Cayce's education stopped in the ninth grade because his family could not afford the costs involved.^[14] A ninth-grade education was often considered more than sufficient for working-class children. Much of the remainder of Cayce's younger years would be characterized by a search for both employment and money. On March 14, 1897, Cayce became engaged to Gertrude Evans.

Throughout his life, Cayce was drawn to church as a member of the Disciples of Christ. He read the Bible once a year every year, taught at Sunday school,^[15] and recruited missionaries. He said he could see auras around people, spoke to angels, and heard voices of departed relatives. In his early years, he agonized over whether these psychic abilities were spiritually delivered from the highest source.^[16]

In 1900, Cayce formed a business partnership with his father to sell Woodmen of the WorldInsurance; however, in March he was struck by severe laryngitis that resulted in a complete loss of speech.^[14] Unable to work, he lived at home with his parents for almost a year. He then decided to take up the trade of photography, an occupation that would exert less strain on his voice. He began an apprenticeship at the photography studio of W. R. Bowles in Hopkinsville, and eventually became quite talented in his trade.^[17]

In 1901, a traveling stage hypnotist and entertainer named Hart, who referred to himself as 'The Laugh Man', was performing at the Hopkinsville Opera House. Hart heard about Cayce's condition and offered to attempt a cure. Cayce accepted his offer, and the experiment was conducted in the office of Manning Brown, the local throat specialist. Cayce's voice allegedly returned while in a hypnotic trance but disappeared on awakening. Hart tried a posthypnotic suggestion that the voice would continue to function after the trance, but this proved unsuccessful.^[18][19]

Since Hart had appointments at other cities, he could not continue his hypnotic treatments of Cayce, but admitted he had failed because Cayce would not go into the third stage of hypnosis to take a suggestion. A New York hypnotist, Dr Quackenboss, found the same impediment but, after returning to New York, suggested that Cayce should be prompted to take over his own case while in the second stage of hypnosis. The only local hypnotist, Al Layne, offered to help Cayce restore his voice.^[20] Layne suggested that Cayce describe the nature of his condition and cure while in a hypnotic trance.^[18] Cayce described his own ailment from a first-person plural point of view: 'we' instead of the singular 'I'.^[18] In subsequent sessions, when Cayce wanted to indicate that the connection was made to the 'entity' of the person that was requesting the reading, he would generally start off with, 'We have the body.' According to the reading for the 'entity' of Cayce, his voice loss was due to psychological paralysis, and could be corrected by increasing the blood flow to the voice box. Layne suggested that the blood flow be increased and Cayce's face supposedly became flushed with blood, and both his chest and throat turned bright red.^[18] After 20 minutes, Cayce, still in a trance, declared the treatment over. On awakening, his voice was alleged to have remained normal. Apparently, relapses occurred, but were said to have been corrected by Layne in the same way, and eventually the cure was said to be permanent.

Layne had read of similar hypnotic cures by the Marquis de Puységur, a follower of Franz Mesmer, and was keen to explore the limits of the healing knowledge involved with the trance voice.^[21] He asked Cayce to describe Layne's own ailments and suggest cures, and reportedly found the results both accurate and effective. Layne regarded the ability as clairvoyance. Layne suggested that Cayce offer his trance healing to the public. Cayce was reluctant as he had no idea what he was prescribing while asleep, and whether the remedies were safe. He also told Layne he himself did not want to know anything about the patient as it was not relevant. He finally agreed, on the condition that readings would be free. He began, with Layne's help, to offer free treatments to the townspeople. Layne described Cayce's method as, '..a self-imposed hypnotic trance which induces clairvoyance.'^[22] Reports of Cayce's work appeared in the newspapers, which inspired many postal inquiries.^[23] Cayce stated he could work just as effectively using a letter from the individual as with the person being present in the room. Given only the person's name and location, Cayce said he could diagnose the physical and mental conditions of what he termed 'the entity,' and then provide a remedy. Cayce was still reticent and worried, as 'one dead patient was all he needed to become a murderer'. His fiancée, Gertrude Evans, agreed with him. Few people knew what he was up to. There was a common belief at the time that subjects of hypnosis eventually went insane, or at least that their health suffered.^[24] Cayce soon became famous, and people from around the world sought his advice through correspondence.

In May 1902 he got a bookshop job in the town of Bowling Green where he boarded with some young professionals, two of whom were doctors.^[25] He lost his voice while there and Layne came to help effect the normal cure, finally visiting every week. Cayce, still worried, kept the meetings secret, and continued to refuse money for his readings. He invented a card game called Pit or Board of Trade, simulating wheat market trading, that became popular, but when he sent the idea to a game company they copyrighted it and he got no returns. He still refused to give readings for money.^[26]

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Cayce and Gertrude Evans married on June 17, 1903, and she moved to Bowling Green with him. They had three children: Hugh Lynn Cayce (March 16, 1907 – July 4, 1982), Milton Porter Cayce (March 28, 1911 – May 17, 1911), and Edgar Evans Cayce (February 9, 1918 – February 15, 2013).^[4][27] She still disapproved of the readings, and Cayce still agonized over the morality of them. A few days later Layne revealed the activity to the professionals at the boarding house, one of whom was a magistrate and journalist, after which state medical authorities forced Layne to close his practice. He left to acquire osteopathic qualifications in Franklin. Cayce and Gertrude accepted the resulting publicity as best they could, greatly aided by the diplomacy of the young doctors.^[28]

Cayce and a relative opened a photographic studio in Bowling Green, while the doctors formed a committee with some colleagues to investigate the phenomenon, with Cayce’s co-operation. All the experiments confirmed the accuracy of the readings. However, Cayce refused a lucrative offer to go into business. After a violent examination by doctors while in a trance, Cayce refused any more investigations, declaring that he would only do readings for those who needed help and believed in the readings.^[29]

In 1906 and 1907 fires burned down his two photographic studios, leading to bankruptcy. Between the two fires, his first son was born on March 16, 1907. He became debt free by 1909, although completely broke, and ready to start again. In 1907, outstanding diagnostic successes in the family helped his confidence. He again refused an offer to go into business, this time with homeopath Wesley H. Ketchum from Hopkinsville, who was introduced by his father. He found a job at the H. P. Tresslar photography firm.^[30]

However, Ketchum was persistent, spread information in various medical circles, and in October 1910 got written up in the press. When a reporter contacted Cayce, he explained to the reporter that he somehow had the ability to easily go into the intuitive sleep when he wanted to, and this was different from how he went to sleep normally like everyone else. When asked the mechanism of the readings via the sleep method, they were told that it happened via the capabilities of the subconscious mind.^[31]

Ketchum again urged Cayce to join a business company. After soul searching the whole night, Cayce finally accepted the offer under certain conditions, including that he did not take money for the readings. Instead the company was to furnish him with a photographic studio for his livelihood, and build a separate office for the readings. The contract was modified to give 50% of the earnings to Cayce and his father. Cayce read the back readings, but they contained so many technical terms that he gained no more understanding of what he was doing. He preferred to put the readings on a more scientific basis, but only the doctors in Hopkinsville would cooperate, whereas most of the patients were not in that locality. Also, doctors from all specialties were needed as the treatments prescribed varied widely.^[32]

Edgar Cayce, and especially Gertrude, still did not give therapeutic priority to the readings and supposedly lost their second child due to this reticence. When Gertrude became fatally ill with tuberculosis, they used the readings after the doctor had given up. Miraculously, the treatment cured her. Shortly after this, in 1912, Cayce, whose everyday conscious mind was not aware during the readings, discovered that Ketchum had not been honest about them, and had also used them to gamble for finance. He argued in defense that the medical profession were not backing them. Cayce quit the company immediately and went back to the Tresslar photography firm in Selma, Alabama.^[33]

1912–1923: Selma, Alabama period[edit]

Cayce's work grew in volume as his fame grew. He asked for voluntary donations to support himself and his family so that he could practice full-time. To help raise money he invented Pit, a card game based on the commodities trading at the Chicago Board of Trade, and the game is still sold today. He continued to work in an apparent trance state with a hypnotist all his life. His wife and eldest son later replaced Layne in this role. A secretary, Gladys Davis, recorded his readings in shorthand.^[23]

The growing fame of Cayce along with the popularity he received from newspapers attracted several eager commercially minded men who wanted to seek a fortune by using his clairvoyant abilities. Even though Cayce was reluctant to help them, he was persuaded to give his readings, which left him dissatisfied with himself and unsuccessful. A cotton merchant offered him a hundred dollars a day for his readings about the daily outcomes in the cotton market; however, despite his poor finances, Cayce refused the merchant's offer.^[34] Some wanted to know where to hunt for treasures while others wanted to know the outcome of horse races.^[35] Several times he was persuaded to give such readings as an experiment. However, when he used his ability for such purposes, he did no better than chance alone would dictate. These experiments allegedly left him depleted of energy, distraught, and unsatisfied with himself. Finally, he decided to use his gift only to help the distressed and sick.^[23]

In 1923, Arthur Lammers, a wealthy printer and student of metaphysics, persuaded Cayce to give readings on philosophical subjects.^[36] Cayce was told by Lammers that, while in his trance state, he spoke of Lammers' past lives and of reincarnation, something Lammers believed in. Reincarnation was a popular subject of the day but is not an accepted part of Christian doctrine. Because of this, Cayce questioned his stenographer about what he said in his trance state and remained unconvinced. He challenged Lammers' charge that he had validated astrology and reincarnation in the following dialogue:

Cayce: I said all that?.. I couldn't have said all that in one reading.

Lammers: No. But you confirmed it. You see, I have been studying metaphysics for years, and I was able by a few questions, by the facts you gave, to check what is right and what is wrong with a whole lot of the stuff I've been reading. The important thing is that the basic system which runs through all the mystery religions, whether they come from Tibet or the pyramids of Egypt, is backed up by you. It's actually the right system.^[37]

Cayce's stenographer recorded the following:

In this we see the plan of development of those individuals set upon this plane, meaning the ability to enter again into the presence of the Creator and become a full part of that creation.

Insofar as this entity is concerned, this is the third appearance on this plane, and before this one, as the monk. We see glimpses in the life of the entity now as were shown in the monk, in this mode of living. The body is only the vehicle ever of that spirit and soul that waft through all times and ever remain the same.

Cayce was quite unconvinced that he had been referring to the doctrine of reincarnation, and the best Lammers could offer was that the reading 'opens up the door' and to go on to share his beliefs and knowledge with Cayce.^[38] Lammers had come to him with quite a bit of information of his own to share with Cayce and seemed intent upon convincing Cayce now that he felt the reading had confirmed his strongly-held beliefs.^[39] It should be noted, however, that 12 years earlier Cayce had briefly alluded to reincarnation. In reading 4841–1, given April 22, 1911, Cayce referred to the soul being 'transmigrated.' Because Cayce's readings were not systematically recorded until 1923, it is possible that he may have mentioned reincarnation in other earlier readings.

1923–1925: Dayton, Ohio period[edit]

Lammers asked Cayce to come to Dayton to pursue metaphysical truth via the readings. Cayce eventually agreed and went to Dayton. Gertrude Cayce was dubious but interested. There, Cayce produced much metaphysical information, which Cayce tried to reconcile with Christianity. Lammers declared that the fifth chapter of Matthew was the constitution of Christianity and the Sermon on the Mount was its Declaration of Independence. It appeared that Cayce's subconscious mind was as much at home with the language of metaphysics as it was with the language of anatomy and medicine.^[40]

Cayce reported that his conscience bothered him severely over this conflict. His readings of reincarnations were going against his biblical teachings and at one point he wanted to cease his channeling sessions. Once again Cayce lost his voice and in a reading for himself he was informed if he was no longer going to be a channel, his mission in this life was complete. Ultimately his trance voice, the 'we' of the readings, dialogued with Cayce and finally persuaded him to continue with these kinds of readings.^[41]

Lammers wanted to ask the purpose of readings of Cayce's clairvoyance, and to put up money for an organization supporting Cayce's healing methods. Cayce decided to accept the work and asked his family to join him in Dayton as soon as they could. But by the time the Cayce's had arrived there, near the end of 1923, Lammers found himself in financial difficulties and could be of no use. Many people viewed Cayce as of no use. Cayce used his knowledge of the Bible to convince his family that the word of the Bible agreed with reincarnation and other metaphysical teachings.^[42]

It was at this time Cayce directed his activities to provide readings centred around health. The remedies that were channeled often involved the use of unusual electrotherapy, ultraviolet light, diet, massage, gemstones, less mental work and more relaxation in sand on the beach. His remedies were coming under the scrutiny of the American Medical Association and Cayce felt that it was time to legitimize the operations with the aid of licensed medical practitioners. In 1925 Cayce reported while in a trance, 'the voice' had instructed him to move to Virginia Beach, Virginia^[43] across the street from the beach. He was informed that the sand's crystals would have curative properties to promote rapid healing.

1925–1945: Virginia Beach period[edit]

Cayce's mature period, in which he created the several institutions that survived him, can be considered to have started in 1925. By this time he was a professional psychic with a small number of employees and volunteers.^[44] The readings increasingly came to involve occult or esoteric themes.^[45]

Money was extremely scarce, but help came from interested persons. The idea of an association and a hospital was mooted again, but the readings insisted on Virginia Beach, not suiting most of the people. Gertrude Cayce began to conduct all the readings. Morton Blumenthal, a young man who worked in the stock exchange in New York with his trader brother, became very interested in the readings, shared Cayce's outlook, and offered to finance the vision in the right spirit. He bought them a house at Virginia Beach.^[46]

On May 6, 1927, the Association of National Investigations was incorporated in the state of Virginia. This would manage building the hospital and a scientific study of the readings. Morton was president and his brother and several others were vice presidents. Cayce was secretary and treasurer, and Gladys was assistant secretary. To protect against legal prosecution, the rules required any person requesting a reading to become a member of the Association and agree they were participating in an experiment in psychic research. Early in 1928, Dr Moseley Brown, head of the psychology department at Washington and Lee University, became convinced of the readings and joined the Association.^[47]

On October 11, 1928, the dedication ceremonies for the hospital complex were held. It contained a lecture hall, library, vault for storage of the readings, and offices for research workers. There was also a large living room, a 12-car garage, servants quarters, and a tennis court. It contained 'the largest lawn, in fact the only lawn, between the Cavalier and Cape Henry.' The first patient was admitted the next day.^[48]

This facility would enable consistent checking and rechecking of the remedies, which was Cayce's goal. There were consistent remedies for many of the illnesses regardless of the patient, and Cayce hoped to produce a compendium that could be used by the medical profession. A distinguished chemist, Dr Sunker A. Bisley, DPhil (Oxon), who also used psychic knowledge to produce medicines, collaborated with Cayce to produce Atomidine, an absorbable form of iodine, which was perfected and sold.^[49]

The basic raison d'etre for all the cures was the 'assimilation of needed properties through the digestive system, from food taken into the body .. [All treatments, including all schools and types of treatment, were given in order to establish] the proper equilibrium of the assimilating system.'^[50] Therapies as divergent as salt packs, poultices, hot compresses, color healing, magnetism, vibrator treatment, massage, osteopathic manipulation, dental therapy, colonics, enemas, antiseptics, inhalants, homeopathics, essential oils, mud baths were prescribed. Substances used included oils, salts, herbs, iodine, witch hazel, magnesia, bismuth, alcohol, castoria, lactated pepsin, turpentine, charcoal, animated ash, soda, cream of tartar, aconite, laudanum, camphor, and gold solution. These were prescribed to overcome conditions that prevented proper digestion and assimilation of needed nutrients from the prescribed diet. The aim of the readings was to produce a healthy body, removing the cause of the specific ailment. Readings would indicate if the patient's recovery was problematic.^[51]

There was a waiting list of months ahead.^[52] Blumenthal and Brown went ahead with ambitious plans for a university as a supplement to the hospital and a 'parallel service for the mind and spirit'. In fact, it was to dwarf the hospital and rival other universities in respectability before psychic studies would begin. It was to open on September 22, 1930. On September 16 Blumenthal called a meeting of the Association resulting in his ownership of the hospital to curb expenses. After the first semester he ceased his support of the university, and on February 26, 1931, closed down the Association. Cayce removed the files of the readings from the hospital and took them home.^[53]

The Depression years saw Cayce turn his attention to spiritual teachings. In 1931, Edgar Cayce's friends and family asked him how they could become psychic like him. Out of this seemingly simple question came an eleven-year discourse that led to the creation of 'Study Groups'. From his altered state, Cayce relayed to this group that the purpose of life is not to become psychic, but to become a more spiritually aware and loving person. Study Group No. 1 was told that they could 'bring light to a waiting world' and that these lessons would still be studied a hundred years into the future. The readings were now about dreams, coincidence (synchronicity), developing intuition, karma, the akashic records, astrology, past-life relationships, soul mates and other esoteric subjects. Hundreds of books have been published about these readings.

On June 6, 1931, 61 people attended a meeting to carry on the work and form a new organization called the Association for Research and Enlightenment. In July the new association was incorporated, and Cayce legally returned the house to Blumenthal and bought another place.^[54]

Hugh Lynn proposed that they develop a stock in trade rather than something grandiose, and that they build a library of research into the phenomena and hold study groups, and that Cayce would do two readings a day. The association accepted this, and Hugh Lynn also started a monthly bulletin for association members. The bulletin contained readings on general interest subjects, interesting cases, book reviews on psychic subjects, health hints from readings, and news of psychic phenomena in other fields.^[55]

Hugh Lynn narrowed the mailing list to some 300 members who were genuinely enthusiastic, and as a result the first annual congress of the association was held in June 1932. He procured speakers on various metaphysical and psychic subjects and included public readings by Cayce. Members left the conference eager to start study groups in their own localities. Records were kept of everything that went on in the readings including the attitudes and routines of Cayce. Everything was then checked with the subjects of the readings, most of whom were not present during the reading, and the data was published in a study entitled '100 cases of clairvoyance.' However, the response from scientists in general was that none of the experiments were performed under test conditions.^[56] Hugh Lynn continued to build files of case histories, parallel studies in psychic phenomena, and research readings for the study groups.^[57]

Association activities remained simple and un-publicized. Members raised a building fund for an office, library, and vault, which they erected in 1940–41 as a single unit added on to the Cayce residence.^[58] No sign guided visitors to the centre. Association membership averaged 500 to 600. The turnover from year to year was approximately half this total. The other half remained a solid basis for the research work, an audience for case studies, pamphlets, bulletins—and the Congress bulletin, which was a yearbook and record of congress events. A mailing list of several thousand served people who remained interested in Cayce's activities.^[59]

Members were drawn from all of the Protestant churches: from the Roman, Greek, Syrian and Armenian Catholic churches; from Theosophy, Christian Science and Spiritualism; and from many Oriental religions. Cayce's philosophy was, if it makes you a better member of your church then it's good; if it takes you away from your church, it's bad. The philosophy of the readings was that truth is one, each organization is part of this one, therefore the A.R.E. was not to function as a schism or in opposition to any religious organization. The goal of the work was not something new but something ancient and universal.^[60]

Both sons entered the forces during the war. They both married, Hugh Lynn in 1941 and Edgar Evans in 1942.^[61]

In March 1943 the first edition of the only biography written during Cayce's lifetime, by Thomas Sugrue, was published. As a consequence, public demand increased. Office staff had to be increased, and the mailman could no longer carry all the mail so Gertrude got it from the post office by car. Hugh Lynn was away in the forces, and Cayce coped with the letters and increased his readings to four to six per day.^[61]

Cayce gained national prominence in 1943 after the publication of a high-profile article in the magazine Coronet titled 'Miracle Man of Virginia Beach'.^[44]World War II was taking its toll on American soldiers and he felt he could not refuse the families who requested help for their loved ones who were missing in action. He increased the frequency of his readings to eight per day to try to make an impression on the ever-growing pile of requests. He said this took a toll on his health as it was emotionally draining and often fatigued him. The readings themselves scolded him for attempting too much and that he should limit his workload to just two life readings a day or else these good efforts would eventually kill him.^[62]

From June 1943 to June 1944, 1,385 readings were taken. By August 1944 Cayce collapsed from strain. When he gave a reading on this situation, the instructions were to rest until he was well or dead. He and Gertrude went away to the mountains of Virginia, but in September Edgar Cayce suffered a stroke at the age of 67, in September 1944, and died on January 3, 1945.^[63] He is buried in Riverside Cemetery in Hopkinsville, Kentucky.^[64] Gertrude died 3 months later.^[65]

After the death of Cayce, the Association continued the work of classifying and cross-referencing the over 14,000 files of readings that had been taken throughout Cayce's lifetime from March 31, 1901, to September 17, 1944. The results of these have been disseminated through the Association's publications with the members as the recipients of this material.^[66]

Claims for psychic abilities[edit]

Until September 1923, his readings were not systematically recorded or preserved. However, an article published in the Birmingham Post-Herald on October 10, 1922, quotes Cayce as saying that he had given 8,056 readings as of that date and it is known that he gave approximately 13,000–14,000 readings after that date. A total of 14,306 are available at the A.R.E. Cayce headquarters in Virginia Beach and on an online, member-only section along with background information, correspondence, and follow-up documentation.^[67]

Other abilities that have been attributed to Cayce include astral projection, prophesying, mediumship, viewing the Akashic records or 'Book of Life', and seeing auras. Cayce said he became interested in learning more about these subjects after he was informed about the content of his readings, which he reported that he never actually heard himself.^[68]

Supporters[edit]

Cayce's clients included a number of famous people such as Woodrow Wilson, Thomas Edison, Irving Berlin, and George Gershwin.^[69]

Gina Cerminara published books such as Many Mansions and The World Within. Brian Weiss published a bestseller regarding clinical recollection of past lives, Many Lives, Many Masters. These books provide broad support for spiritualism and reincarnation. Many Mansions elaborates on Cayce's work and supports his stated abilities with real life examples.

In 1971 Edgar Cayce's sons Edgar Evans Cayce and Hugh Lynn Cayce published a book titled The Outer Limits of Edgar Cayce's Power,^[70] claiming Cayce's readings had an approximate 85% success rate. The majority of the book investigated cases where Cayce's readings were demonstrably incorrect.

Wesley Harrington Ketchum[edit]

Ketchum was a physician who worked with Cayce in the early 1900s.^[71][72] Ketchum himself was born in Lisbon, Ohio on November 11, 1878, to Saunders C. Ketchum and Bertha Bennett, and was the oldest of 7 children. He graduated from the Cleveland College of Homeopathic Medicine in 1904,^[73] and took up the practice of medicine in Hopkinsville Kentucky. He practiced medicine in Hopkinsville until 1912. In 1913 he traveled across country to San Francisco, and took passage to Honolulu, Hawaii, where he opened a new practice. He returned to California in 1918, and established an office in Palo Alto California, practicing medicine there until the 1950s. He retired to Southern California around 1963, settling in San Marino, just outside Pasadena. He died on November 28, 1968, in Canoga Park, California.

He wrote The Discovery of Edgar Cayce, published by the A.R.E. Press in 1964.^[74]

Controversy and criticism[edit]

Controversy[edit]

Cayce advocated some controversial ideas in his trance readings. In many trance sessions, he interpreted the history of life on Earth. One of Cayce's controversial claims was that of polygenism. According to Cayce, five human races (white, black, red, brown, and yellow) had been created separately but simultaneously on different parts of the Earth. Cayce also accepted the existence of aliens and Atlantis, and claimed that 'the red race developed in Atlantis and its development was rapid.' Another claim by Cayce was that 'soul-entities' on Earth intermingled with animals to produce 'things' such as giants that were as much as twelve feet tall.^[75]

Historian Olav Hammer wrote that many of Cayce's readings discussed race and skin color and that the explanation for this is that Cayce was not a racist but was influenced by the occult ideas of Madame Blavatsky.^[76]

Philosopher and skeptic Robert Todd Carroll, in his book The Skeptic's Dictionary, wrote, 'Cayce is one of the main people responsible for some of the sillier notions about Atlantis.' Carroll mentioned some of Cayce's ideas, including his belief in a giant solar crystal, activated by the sun, and used to harness energy and provide power on Atlantis, and his prediction that in 1958, the United States would rediscover a death ray that had been used on Atlantis.^[77]

In 1930s, Cayce also incorrectly predicted that North America would experience chaos: 'Los Angeles, San Francisco.. will be among those that will be destroyed before New York'. These events were to have happened 'in the period of '58 to '98'.^[78]

Criticism[edit]

Skeptics challenge Cayce's alleged psychic abilities.^[79][80] Medical health experts are critical of Cayce's unorthodox treatments, which they regard as quackery.^[81][82]

Science writers and skeptics have suggested that the evidence for Cayce's alleged psychic powers comes from contemporaneous newspaper articles, affidavits, anecdotes, testimonials, and books. Martin Gardner, for example, wrote that while Cayce's trances did happen, most of the information from his trances was derived from books that Cayce had been reading by authors such as Carl Jung, P. D. Ouspensky, and Helena Blavatsky. Gardner's hypothesis was that the trance readings of Cayce contain, 'little bits of information gleaned from here and there in the occult literature, spiced with occasional novelties from Cayce's unconscious.'^[83]

Michael Shermer writes in Why People Believe Weird Things, 'Uneducated beyond the ninth grade, Cayce acquired his broad knowledge through voracious reading and from this he wove elaborate tales.'^[84] Shermer wrote that, 'Cayce was fantasy-prone from his youth, often talking with angels and receiving visions of his dead grandfather.' Magician James Randi has said that 'Cayce was fond of expressions like 'I feel that' and 'perhaps'—qualifying words used to avoid positive declarations.' Examination of the readings do not show qualifying terms.^[85]

Investigator Joe Nickell has noted:

Although Cayce was never subjected to proper testing, ESP pioneer Joseph B. Rhine of Duke University – who should have been sympathetic to Cayce's claims – was unimpressed. A reading that Cayce gave for Rhine's daughter was notably inaccurate. Frequently, Cayce was even wider off the mark, as when he provided diagnoses of subjects who had died since the letters requesting the readings were sent.^[86]

Science writer Karen Stollznow has written:

The reality is that his cures were hearsay and his treatments were folk remedies that were useless at best and dangerous at worse .. Cayce wasn't able to cure his own cousin, or his own son who died as a baby. Many of Cayce's readings took place after the patient had already died.^[87]

Traditional Christians are critical^[88] of Cayce's views on issues such as reincarnation,^[89]oneness,^[90] and the Akashic records.^[91]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'About A.R.E. and Our Mission'. Association for Research and Enlightenment. Retrieved December 18, 2011.
2. ^York, Michael (1995). The Emerging Network: A Sociology of the New Age and Neo-Pagan Movements. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 60. ISBN0-8476-8001-0.
3. ^'Carrie Elizabeth Major Cayce (1855–1927) – Find A..'www.findagrave.com.
4. ^ ^ab'Chronology'. Association for Research and Enlightenment. Retrieved December 18, 2011.
5. ^Sugrue, Thomas (1942). There Is a River. Virginia Beach, VA: A.R.E. Press (50th Anniversary edition). p. 37. ISBN0876042353.
6. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 35–40.
7. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 41–46.
8. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 46–9.
9. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 52.
10. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 52–54.
11. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 118.
12. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 67.
13. ^'About Edgar Cayce'. Association for Research and Enlightenment. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved December 19, 2011.
14. ^ ^abCerminara, Gina (1999). 'The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce'. Many Mansions. p. 13.
15. ^Bowden, Henry Warner (1993). Dictionary of American Religious Biography (Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 106. ISBN978-0-313-27825-9.
16. ^Sugrue, Thomas (1942). There Is a River. Virginia Beach, VA: A.R.E. Press (50th Anniversary edition). p. 45. ISBN0876042353.
17. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 111–112.
18. ^ ^abcdCerminara, Gina (1999). 'The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce'. Many Mansions. p. 14.
19. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 116.
20. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 116–120
21. ^Cerminara, Gina (1999). 'The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce'. Many Mansions. p. 15.
22. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 123–3.
23. ^ ^abcCerminara, Gina (1999). 'The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce'. Many Mansions. p. 19.
24. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 125–6.
25. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 127–129.
26. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 134–5.
27. ^The Virginian Pilot (obituaries) Feb 19, 2013
28. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 137–142.
29. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 146–157.
30. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 161–175.
31. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 175–8.
32. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 180–190.
33. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 191–210.
34. ^Smith, A. Robert. My Life as a Seer: The Lost Memoirs. p. 403.
35. ^Cayce, Hugh Lynn (2004). The Outer Limits of Edgar Cayce's Power. p. 71.
36. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 238.
37. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 237–238.
38. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 240.
39. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 241.
40. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 234–242.
41. ^Cerminara, Gina (1999). 'An answer to the Riddles of Life'. Many Mansions. pp. 25–28.
42. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 243–264.
43. ^Auken, John Van (2005). Edgar Cayce on the Revelation. Eventually Edgar Cayce, following advice from his own readings, moved to Virginia Beach, Virginia, and set up a hospital
44. ^ ^abMiller, Timothy (1995). America's Alternative Religions. SUNY Press. p. 354.
45. ^Sugrue 2003, ch. 20.
46. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 267–8.
47. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 274–277.
48. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 281–5.
49. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 285–8.
50. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 290–1.
51. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 290–300.
52. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 295, 300.
53. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 306–316.
54. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 317–320.
55. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 324–328.
56. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 330–333.
57. ^Sugrue 2003, p. 343.
58. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 346–7, 354
59. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 346–7.
60. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 348–350.
61. ^ ^abSugrue 2003, p. 355.
62. ^Callahan, Kathy L. (2004). In The Image of God and the Shadow of Demons: A Metaphysical Study Of Good And Evil. Trafford Publishing. p. 162.
63. ^Browne, Sylvia; Harrison, Lindsay. Prophecy: What the Future Holds for You. p. 67.
64. ^'Grave of Famous Prophet Edgar Cayce'. RoadsideAmerica.com. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
65. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 335–6.
66. ^Sugrue 2003, pp. 356–7.
67. ^EdgarCayce.org
68. ^Bro, Harmon Hartzell. Edgar Cayce: A Seer out of Season, Aquarian Press, London, 1990.
69. ^Edgar Cayce: an American prophet, Sidney Kirkpatrick, 2000
70. ^Evans., Cayce, Edgar. The outer limits of Edgar Cayce's power. Cayce, Hugh Lynn (First ed.). New York. ISBN1931044686. OCLC148598.
71. ^The Story of Edgar Cayce: There Is a River – Thomas Sugrue – Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved June 1, 2014.
72. ^The Reincarnation of Edgar Cayce?: Interdimensional Communication and Global .. – Wynn Free, David Wilcock – Google Books. Books.google.com. June 15, 2010. Retrieved June 1, 2014.
73. ^'Original Articles'. Cleveland Medical and Surgical Reporter. 12: 252.
74. ^'The discovery of Edgar Cayce, (Book, 1964)'. [WorldCat.org]. February 22, 1999. Retrieved June 1, 2014.
75. ^Orser, Charles E. (2004). Race and Practice in Archaeological Interpretation. p. 68. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0-8122-3750-4
76. ^Hammer, Olav. (2001). Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age. Brill Academic Publishing. p. 114 and the footnote at the bottom of the page. ISBN978-9004120167
77. ^Carroll, Robert Todd. (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary. Wiley. p. 69. ISBN0-471-27242-6
78. ^'American Prophecy – 4'. www.bibliotecapleyades.net. Retrieved November 7, 2016.
79. ^Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover Publications. pp. 216–219. ISBN0-486-20394-8.
80. ^Randi, James (1982). The Truth About Uri Geller. Prometheus Books. p. 195. ISBN0-87975-199-1. The matter of Edgar Cayce boils down to a vague mass of garbled data, interpreted by true believers who have a very heavy stake in the acceptance of the claims. Put to the test, Cayce is found to be bereft of powers. His reputation today rests on poor and deceptive reporting of the claims made by him and his followers, and such claims do not stand up to examination.
81. ^Renner, John H. (1990). HealthSmarts: How to Spot the Quacks, Avoid the Nonsense, and Get the Facts that Affect Your Health. Health Facts Publishing. p. 7. ISBN978-0962614507 'Some quacks, such as Edgar Cayce, attributed their powers to God. Cayce, who made his diagnoses while in trance, claimed that his healing powers came from God. To treat patients he used spinal manipulation as well as Red Bug Juice and Oil of Smoke in his cures.'
82. ^Raso, Jack. The Legacies of Edgar Cayce. Quackwatch. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
83. ^Johnson, K. Paul. (1998). Edgar Cayce in Context: The Readings, Truth and Fiction. State University of New York Press. p. 23. ISBN978-0791439067
84. ^Michael Shermer. Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time, 2002, ISBN0-8050-7089-3
85. ^Nickell, Joe. (1992). Missing Pieces: How to Investigate Ghosts, UFOs, Psychics, & Other Mysteries. Prometheus Books. p. 159. ISBN0-87975-729-9
86. ^Nickell, Joe. (1993). Looking for a Miracle: Weeping Icons, Relics, Stigmata, Visions & Healing Cures. Prometheus Books. p. 159. ISBN1-57392-680-9
87. ^Stollznow, Karen. (2014). Language Myths, Mysteries and Magic. Palgrave Macmillan. p 103. ISBN978-1-137-40484-8
88. ^Gleghorn, Michael (2002). 'The Worldview of Edgar Cayce'. Probe Ministries. Retrieved January 5, 2014.
89. ^'Reincarnation Past Lives'. Edgar Cayce's Association for Research and Enlightenment. Archived from the original on December 10, 2004. Retrieved January 5, 2014.
90. ^'Edgar Cayce and Oneness'. Edgar Cayce's Association for Research and Enlightenment. 2004. Retrieved October 6, 2016.
91. ^'Akashic Records—The Book of Life'. Edgar Cayce's Association for Research and Enlightenment. Retrieved January 5, 2014.

Further reading[edit]

• Beyerstein, Dale. (1996). Edgar Cayce. In Encyclopedia of the Paranormal edited by Gordon Stein. Prometheus Books. pp. 146–153. ISBN1-57392-021-5
• Cayce, Edgar Evans. Edgar Cayce on Atlantis, New York: Hawthorn, 1968, ISBN0-312-96153-7
• Cerminara, Gina. Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation. orig. 1950, Signet Book, reissue edition 1990, ISBN0-451-16817-8
• Kirkpatrick, Sidney D. An American Prophet, Riverhead Books, 2000, ISBN1-57322-139-2
• Kittler, Glenn D. Edgar Cayce on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Warner Books, 1970, ISBN0-446-90035-4
• Puryear, Herbert B. The Edgar Cayce Primer: Discovering The Path to Self-Transformation, Bantam Books, New York, Toronto, Copyright © September 1982 by Association for Research and Enlightenment, Inc. ISBN0-553-25278-X
• Stearn, Jess. The Sleeping Prophet, Bantam Books, 1967, ISBN0-553-26085-5
• Sugrue, Thomas. There Is a River, A.R.E. Press, 2003, ISBN9780876044483
• Todeschi, Kevin, Edgar Cayce on the Akashic Records, 1998, ISBN978-0-87604-401-8

External links[edit]

• An American Prophet from ABC News
• Edgar Cayce – The Skeptic's Dictionary
• What's the scoop on Edgar Cayce, the 'Sleeping Prophet' – The Straight Dope
• Article by Shirley Abicair, in the Whole Earth Catalog, June 1971

Atlantis (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, 'island of Atlas') is a fictional island mentioned within an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias,^[1] where it represents the antagonist naval power that besieges 'Ancient Athens', the pseudo-historic embodiment of Plato's ideal state in The Republic. In the story, Athens repels the Atlantean attack unlike any other nation of the known world,^[2] supposedly giving testament to the superiority of Plato's concept of a state.^[3][4] The story concludes with Atlantis falling out of favor with the deities and submerging into the Atlantic Ocean.

Despite its minor importance in Plato's work, the Atlantis story has had a considerable impact on literature. The allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, such as Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and Thomas More's Utopia.^[5][6] On the other hand, nineteenth-century amateur scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative as historical tradition, most notably in Ignatius L. Donnelly's Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. Plato's vague indications of the time of the events—more than 9,000 years before his time^[7]—and the alleged location of Atlantis—'beyond the Pillars of Hercules'—has led to much pseudoscientific speculation.^[8] As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, from comic books to films.

While present-day philologists and classicists agree on the story's fictional character,^[9][10] there is still debate on what served as its inspiration. As for instance with the story of Gyges,^[11] Plato is known to have freely borrowed some of his allegories and metaphors from older traditions. This led a number of scholars to investigate possible inspiration of Atlantis from Egyptian records of the Thera eruption,^[12][13] the Sea Peoples invasion,^[14] or the Trojan War.^[15] Others have rejected this chain of tradition as implausible and insist that Plato created an entirely fictional nation as his example,^[16][17][18] drawing loose inspiration from contemporary events such as the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction of Helike in 373 BC.^[19]

• 1Plato's dialogues
• 2Interpretations
  • 2.3Modern
    • 2.3.1Atlantis pseudohistory
• 3Location hypotheses
• 4Literary interpretations
• 5Artistic representations

Plato's dialogues

Timaeus

The only primary sources for Atlantis are Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias; all other mentions of the island are based on them. The dialogues claim to quote Solon, who visited Egypt between 590 and 580 BC; they state that he translated Egyptian records of Atlantis.^[20] Written in 360 BC, Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus:

For it is related in our records how once upon a time your State stayed the course of a mighty host, which, starting from a distant point in the Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to attack the whole of Europe, and Asia to boot. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; for in front of the mouth which you Greeks call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' there lay an island which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and it was possible for the travelers of that time to cross from it to the other islands, and from the islands to the whole of the continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that we have here, lying within the mouth of which we speak, is evidently a haven having a narrow entrance; but that yonder is a real ocean, and the land surrounding it may most rightly be called, in the fullest and truest sense, a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there existed a confederation of kings, of great and marvelous power, which held sway over all the island, and over many other islands also and parts of the continent.^[21]

The four people appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic method in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition.

The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's Republic (c. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions a tale he considered to be historical, that would make the perfect example, and he then follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the 'perfect society' and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the 'perfect' traits described in the Republic.

Critias

According to Critias, the Hellenic deities of old divided the land so that each deity might have their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined,^[22][23] but it was later sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. Plato asserted that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting mostly of mountains in the northern portions and along the shore and encompassing a great plain in an oblong shape in the south 'extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi].' Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides .. broke it off all round about .. the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].

In Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island toward the pillars of Hercules.^[24] The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes—were also given 'rule over many men, and a large territory.'

Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each ring of the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, and black rock, quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin, and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively.

According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules, as far as Egypt, and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and had subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands.

But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island.^[25]

The logographerHellanicus of Lesbos wrote an earlier work entitled Atlantis, of which only a few fragments survive. Hellanicus' work appears to have been a genealogical one concerning the daughters of Atlas (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means 'of Atlas'),^[12] but some authors have suggested a possible connection with Plato's island. John V. Luce notes that when Plato writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, he writes in the same style as Hellanicus, suggesting a similarity between a fragment of Hellanicus's work and an account in the Critias.^[12] Rodney Castleden suggests that Plato may have borrowed his title from Hellanicus, who may have based his work on an earlier work about Atlantis.^[26]

Castleden has pointed out that Plato wrote of Atlantis in 359 BC, when he returned to Athens from Sicily. He notes a number of parallels between the physical organisation and fortifications of Syracuse and Plato's description of Atlantis.^[27] Gunnar Rudberg was the first who elaborated upon the idea that Plato's attempt to realize his political ideas in the city of Syracuse could have heavily inspired the Atlantis account.^[28]

Interpretations

Ancient

Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fictional or metaphorical myth; others believed it to be real.^[29]Aristotle believed that Plato, his teacher, had invented the island to teach philosophy.^[20] The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is cited often as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Timaeus, is lost, but Proclus, a Neoplatonist of the fifth century AD, reports on it.^[30] The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story, or, as claiming that he learned about them from other visitors to Egypt.^[31] Proclus wrote:

As for the whole of this account of the Atlanteans, some say that it is unadorned history, such as Crantor, the first commentator on Plato. Crantor also says that Plato's contemporaries used to criticize him jokingly for not being the inventor of his Republic but copying the institutions of the Egyptians. Plato took these critics seriously enough to assign to the Egyptians this story about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make them say that the Athenians really once lived according to that system.

The next sentence is often translated 'Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars which are still preserved.' But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the ambiguous He; whether this referred to Crantor or to Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a metaphorical myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the pronoun refers to Crantor.^[32]

Alan Cameron argues that the pronoun should be interpreted as referring to Plato, and that, when Proclus writes that 'we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth', he is treating 'Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes'.^[33]

Cameron also points out that whether he refers to Plato or to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such as Otto Muck's 'Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis'^[34] or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent 'a special enquiry to Egypt' and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims.^[33]

Another passage from the commentary by Proclus on the 'Timaeus' gives a description of the geography of Atlantis:

That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of enormous size, one of which was sacred to Hades, another to Ammon, and another one between them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km]; and the inhabitants of it—they add—preserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written in his Aethiopica.^[35]

Marcellus remains unidentified.

Other ancient historians and philosophers who believed in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius.^[36] Some have theorized that, before the sixth century BC, the 'Pillars of Hercules' may have applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia, and also may have been part of the pillar cult of the Aegean.^[37][38] The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and it opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in the Mediterranean, lending credence to many details in Plato's discussion.

The fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the first century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus, in fact, says that 'the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine' (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands, or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west.^[39] Instead, the Celts who dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods, (Dioscori), who appeared to them coming from that ocean.^[40]

Jewish and Christian

During the early first century, the Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo wrote about the destruction of Atlantis in his On the Eternity of the World, xxvi. 141, in a longer passage allegedly citing Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:^[41]

.. And the island of Atalantes [translator's spelling; original: 'Ἀτλαντίς'] which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timaeus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies.^[42]

The theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p. 84) noted on this passage: 'Clement may possibly be referring to some known, but hardly accessible land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more probably he contemplated some unknown land in the far west beyond the ocean, like the fabled Atlantis of Plato ..'^[43]

Other early Christian writers wrote about Atlantis, although they had mixed views on whether it once existed or was an untrustworthy myth of pagan origin.^[44]Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote that in the Atlantic Ocean once existed '[the isle] that was equal in size to Libya or Asia'^[45] referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. The early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed, but blamed its destruction on pagans.^[46]

Cosmas Indicopleustes in the sixth century wrote of Atlantis in his Christian Topography in an attempt to prove his theory that the world was flat and surrounded by water:^[47]

.. In like manner the philosopher Timaeus also describes this Earth as surrounded by the Ocean, and the Ocean as surrounded by the more remote earth. For he supposes that there is to westward an island, Atlantis, lying out in the Ocean, in the direction of Gadeira (Cadiz), of an enormous magnitude, and relates that the ten kings having procured mercenaries from the nations in this island came from the earth far away, and conquered Europe and Asia, but were afterwards conquered by the Athenians, while that island itself was submerged by God under the sea. Both Plato and Aristotle praise this philosopher, and Proclus has written a commentary on him. He himself expresses views similar to our own with some modifications, transferring the scene of the events from the east to the west. Moreover he mentions those ten generations as well as that earth which lies beyond the Ocean. And in a word it is evident that all of them borrow from Moses, and publish his statements as their own.^[48]

Modern

Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations regarding Atlantis are an amalgamation of diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century,^[50] when scholars began to identify Atlantis with the New World. Francisco Lopez de Gomara was the first to state that Plato was referring to America, as did Francis Bacon and Alexander von Humboldt; Janus Joannes Bircherod said in 1663 orbe novo non novo ('the New World is not new'). Athanasius Kircher accepted Plato's account as literally true, describing Atlantis as a small continent in the Atlantic Ocean.^[20]

Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share roots with Mayanism, which can be traced to the beginning of the Modern Age, when European imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the indigenous peoples of the Americas.^[51] From this era sprang apocalyptic and utopian visions that would inspire many subsequent generations of theorists.^[51]

Most of these interpretations are considered pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, as they have presented their works as academic or scientific, but lack the standards or criteria.

The Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius is believed to have been the first person to imagine that the continents were joined together before drifting to their present positions. In the 1596 edition of his Thesaurus Geographicus he wrote: 'Unless it be a fable, the island of Gadir or Gades [Cadiz] will be the remaining part of the island of Atlantis or America, which was not sunk (as Plato reports in the Timaeus) so much as torn away from Europe and Africa by earthquakes and flood.. The traces of the ruptures are shown by the projections of Europe and Africa and the indentations of America in the parts of the coasts of these three said lands that face each other to anyone who, using a map of the world, carefully considered them. So that anyone may say with Strabo in Book 2, that what Plato says of the island of Atlantis on the authority of Solon is not a figment.'^[52]

Atlantis pseudohistory

Early influential literature

The term 'utopia' (from 'no place') was coined by Sir Thomas More in his sixteenth-century work of fictionUtopia.^[53] Inspired by Plato's Atlantis and travelers' accounts of the Americas, More described an imaginary land set in the New World.^[54] His idealistic vision established a connection between the Americas and utopian societies, a theme that Bacon discussed in The New Atlantis (c. 1623).^[51] A character in the narrative gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. People had begun believing that the Mayan and Aztec ruins could possibly be the remnants of Atlantis.^[53]

Impact of Mayanism

Much speculation began as to the origins of the Maya, which led to a variety of narratives and publications that tried to rationalize the discoveries within the context of the Bible and that had undertones of racism in their connections between the Old and New World. The Europeans believed the indigenous people to be inferior and incapable of building that which was now in ruins and by sharing a common history, they insinuate that another race must have been responsible.

In the middle and late nineteenth century, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon, formally proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan and Aztec culture.

The French scholar Brasseur de Bourbourg traveled extensively through Mesoamerica in the mid-1800s, and was renowned for his translations of Mayan texts, most notably the sacred book Popol Vuh, as well as a comprehensive history of the region. Soon after these publications, however, Brasseur de Bourbourg lost his academic credibility, due to his claim that the Maya peoples had descended from the Toltecs, people he believed were the surviving population of the racially superior civilization of Atlantis.^[55] His work combined with the skillful, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded to Egypt and other aspects of the Old World, created an authoritative fantasy that excited much interest in the connections between worlds.

Inspired by Brasseur de Bourbourg's diffusion theories, the pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled to Mesoamerica and performed some of the first excavations of many famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as the kingdom of Mu saga, which romantically drew connections to him, his wife Alice, and Egyptian deities Osiris and Isis, as well as to Heinrich Schliemann, who had just discovered the ancient city of Troy from Homer's epic poetry (that had been described as merely mythical).^[56] He also believed that he had found connections between the Greek and Mayan languages, which produced a narrative of the destruction of Atlantis.^[57]

Ignatius Donnelly

The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. He was greatly inspired by early works in Mayanism, and like them, attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which he saw as a technologically sophisticated, more advanced culture. Donnelly drew parallels between creation stories in the Old and New Worlds, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed the Biblical Garden of Eden existed.^[58] As implied by the title of his book, he also believed that Atlantis was destroyed by the Great Flood mentioned in the Bible.

Donnelly is credited as the 'father of the nineteenth century Atlantis revival' and is the reason the myth endures today.^[59] He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of inquiry to history and science, and the idea that myths contain hidden information that opens them to 'ingenious' interpretation by people who believe they have new or special insight.^[60]

Madame Blavatsky and the Theosophists

The Russian mystic Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and her partner Henry Steel Olcott founded their Theosophical Society in the 1870s with a philosophy that combined western romanticism and eastern religious concepts. Blavatsky and her followers in this group are often cited as the founders of New Age and other spiritual movements.^[53]

Blavatsky took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote The Secret Doctrine (1888), which she claimed was originally dictated in Atlantis. She maintained that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as a military threat). She believed in a form of racial evolution (as opposed to primate evolution), in which the Atlanteans were the fourth 'Root Race', succeeded by the fifth and most superior 'Aryan race' (the modern human race).^[53] The Theosophists believed that the civilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago, but destroyed itself through internal warfare brought about by the dangerous use of psychic and supernatural powers of the inhabitants. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy and Waldorf Schools, along with other well known Theosophists, such as Annie Besant, also wrote of cultural evolution in much the same vein.

Some subsequent occultists have followed Blavatsky, at least to the point of tracing the lineage of occult practices back to Atlantis. Among the most famous is Dion Fortune in her Esoteric Orders and Their Work.^[61]

Nazism and occultism

Blavatsky was also inspired by the work of the eighteenth-century astronomerJean-Sylvain Bailly, who had 'Orientalized' the Atlantis myth in his mythical continent of Hyperborea, a reference to Greek myths featuring a Northern European region of the same name, home to a giant, godlike race.^[62] Dan Edelstein claims that her reshaping of this theory in The Secret Doctrine provided the Nazis with a mythological precedent and a pretext for their ideological platform and their subsequent genocide.^[62] However, Blavatsky's writings mention that the Atlantean were in fact olive-skinned peoples with Mongoloid traits who were the ancestors of modern Native Americans, Mongolians and Malayans.^[63][64][65]

Julius Evola's writing in 1934 also suggested that the Atlanteans were Hyperborean, Nordic supermen who originated at the North Pole (see Thule).^{[citation needed]} Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930) spoke of a 'Nordic-Atlantean' or 'Aryan-Nordic' master race.^[66] This ideas may contradict the beliefs of several Esoteric and Theosophic groups that, on the contrary, thought that the Atlanteans were non-Caucasian brown-skinned peoples. Also some Esoteric groups, including the Theosophic Society, do not consider Atlantean society to have been superior or Utopian—they rather consider it a lower stage of evolution.^[67]

Edgar Cayce

Edgar Cayce was a man from humble upbringings in Kentucky who allegedly possessed psychic abilities, which were performed from a trance-like state. In addition to allegedly healing the sick from this state, he also spoke frequently on the topic of Atlantis. In his 'life readings,' he purportedly revealed that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people who had lived on Atlantis. By tapping into their collective consciousness, the 'Akashic Records' (a term borrowed from Theosophy),^[68] he declared that he was able to give detailed descriptions of the lost continent.^[69] He also asserted that Atlantis would 'rise' again in the 1960s (sparking much popularity of the myth in that decade) and that there is a 'Hall of Records' beneath the Egyptian Sphinx, which holds the historical texts of Atlantis.

Recent times

As continental drift became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past,^[70] most 'Lost Continent' theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.

Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter:

The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers of reading Plato. For he is clearly using what has become a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an event (and the discovery of hitherto unknown authorities) as an indication that what follows is fiction. The idea is that we should use the story to examine our ideas of government and power. We have missed the point if instead of thinking about these issues we go off exploring the sea bed. The continuing misunderstanding of Plato as historian here enables us to see why his distrust of imaginative writing is sometimes justified.^[71]

One of the proposed explanations for the historical context of the Atlantis story is a warning of Plato to his contemporary fourth-century fellow-citizens against their striving for naval power.^[18]

Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:

And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon. ..^[72]

Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, 'We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy.'^[73]

Location hypotheses

Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or other pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.)^[74] Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.

In or near the Mediterranean Sea

Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia,^[75][76][77]Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,^[78]Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the province of Manisa, Turkey);^[79]Israel-Sinai or Canaan;^{[citation needed]} and northwestern Africa.^[80]

The Thera eruption, dated to the seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story.^[81][82] In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).

Others have noted that, before the sixth century BC, the mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia were called the 'Pillars of Hercules',^[37][38] and they could be the geographical location being described in ancient reports upon which Plato was basing his story. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and that gulf opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. If from the beginning of discussions, misinterpretation of Gibraltar as the location rather than being at the Gulf of Laconia, would lend itself to many erroneous concepts regarding the location of Atlantis. Plato may have not been aware of the difference. The Laconian pillars open to the south toward Crete and beyond which is Egypt. The Thera eruption and the Late Bronze Age collapse affected that area and might have been the devastation to which the sources used by Plato referred. Significant events such as these would have been likely material for tales passed from one generation to another for almost a thousand years.

In the Atlantic Ocean

The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has a certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting as they understand it. The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have been identified as a possible location,^{[83][84][85][86]} west of the Straits of Gibraltar, but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Detailed studies of their geomorphology and geology have demonstrated, however, that they have been steadily uplifted, without any significant periods of subsidence, over the last four million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitational unloading, lithospheric flexure induced by adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating.^[87][88] Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores.^[85][86] Similarly, cores of sediment covering the ocean bottom surrounding the Azores and other evidence demonstrate that it has been an undersea plateau for millions of years.^[89][90] The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested.^[91]

In Europe

Several hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Doggerland in the North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702). Doggerland, as well as Viking Bergen Island, is thought to have been flooded by a megatsunami following the Storegga slide of c. 6100 BC. Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf as a possible location, and that there is a link to Ireland.^[92]

In 2011, a team, working on a documentary for the National Geographic Channel,^[93] led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found possible evidence of Atlantis in southwestern Andalusia.^[94] The team identified its possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Park, in the area that once was the Lacus Ligustinus,^[95] between the Huelva, Cádiz, and Seville provinces, and they speculated that Atlantis had been destroyed by a tsunami,^[96] extrapolating results from a previous study by Spanish researchers, published four years earlier.^[97]

Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said, 'Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the first millennium BC', and described Freund's claims as 'fanciful'.^[98]

A similar theory had previously been put forward by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, that is based only on satellite imagery and places Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of the city of Cádiz.^[91] Before that, the historian Adolf Schulten had stated in the 1920s that Plato had used Tartessos as the basis for his Atlantis myth.^[99]

Other locations

Several writers have speculated that Antarctica is the site of Atlantis,^[100][101] while others have proposed Caribbean locations such as the alleged Cuban sunken city off the Guanahacabibes peninsula in Cuba,^[102] the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland).^[103] The stories of a lost continent off the coast of India, named 'Kumari Kandam,' have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis.^[104]

Literary interpretations

Ancient versions

In order to give his account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Plato mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Egypt, and transmitted orally over several generations through the family of Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in Timaeus and Critias.^[105] Solon had supposedly tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a poem (that if published, was to be greater than the works of Hesiod and Homer). While it was never completed, Solon passed on the story to Dropides. Modern classicists deny the existence of Solon's Atlantis poem and the story as an oral tradition.^[106] Instead, Plato is thought to be the sole inventor or fabricator.Hellanicus of Lesbos used the word 'Atlantis' as the title for a poem published before Plato,^[107] a fragment of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359.^[108] This work only describes the Atlantides (the daughters of Atlas), however, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account.

In the new era, the third century AD Neoplatonist Zoticus wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis.^[109] Plato's work may already have inspired parodic imitation, however. Writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his Philippica, which contains a dialogue between Silenus and King Midas. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis: Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, 'Pious-town') and Machimos (Μάχιμος, 'Fighting-town'). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, by parody, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.^[110]

Utopias and dystopias

The creation of Utopian and dystopian fictions was renewed after the Renaissance, most notably in Francis Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), the description of an ideal society that he located off the western coast of America. Thomas Heyrick (1649-1694) followed him with 'The New Atlantis' (1687), a satirical poem in three parts. His new continent of uncertain location, perhaps even a floating island either in the sea or the sky, serves as background for his exposure of what he described in a second edition as 'A True Character of Popery and Jesuitism'.^[111]

The title of The New Atalantis by Delarivier Manley (1709), distinguished from the two others by the single letter, is an equally dystopian work but set this time on a fictional Mediterranean island.^[112] In it sexual violence and exploitation is made a metaphor for the hypocritical behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public.^[113] In Manley's case, the target of satire was the Whig Party, while in David Maclean Parry's The Scarlet Empire (1906) it is Socialism as practised in foundered Atlantis.^[114] It was followed in Russia by Velemir Khlebnikov's poem The Fall of Atlantis (Gibel' Atlantidy, 1912), which is set in a future rationalist dystopia that has discovered the secret of immortality and is so dedicated to progress that it has lost touch with the past. When the high priest of this ideology is tempted by a slave girl into an act of irrationality, he murders her and precipitates a second flood, above which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars.^[115]

A slightly later work, The Ancient of Atlantis (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to redeem the earth. Its three parts consist of a verse narrative of the life and training of an Atlantean wise one, followed by his Utopian moral teachings and then a psychic drama set in modern times in which a reincarnated child embodying the lost wisdom is reborn on earth.^[116]

In Hispanic eyes, Atlantis had a more intimate interpretation. The land had been a colonial power which, although it had brought civilization to ancient Europe, had also enslaved its peoples. Its tyrannical fall from grace had contributed to the fate that had overtaken it, but now its disappearance had unbalanced the world. This was the point of view of Jacint Verdaguer's vast mythological epic L'Atlantida (1877). After the sinking of the former continent, Hercules travels east across the Atlantic to found the city of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the Hesperides. The story is told by a hermit to a shipwrecked mariner, who is inspired to follow in his tracks and so 'call the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old'. This mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus.^[117]

Verdaguer's poem was written in Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and Hispano-America.^[118] One response was the similarly entitled Argentinian Atlantida of Olegario Victor Andrade (1881), which sees in 'Enchanted Atlantis that Plato foresaw, a golden promise to the fruitful race' of Latins.^[119] The bad example of the colonising world remains, however. Jose Juan Tablada characterises its threat in his 'De Atlántida' (1894) through the beguiling picture of the lost world populated by the underwater creatures of Classical myth, among whom is the Siren of its final stanza with

her eye on the keel of the wandering vessel

that in passing deflowers the sea's smooth mirror,

launching into the night her amorous warbling

and the dulcet lullaby of her treacherous voice!^[120]

There is a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus' six-stanza 'Atlantis' (1917), where a celebration of the Faroese linguistic revival grants it an ancient pedigree by linking Greek to Norse legend. In the poem a female figure rising from the sea against a background of Classical palaces is recognised as a priestess of Atlantis. The poet recalls 'that the Faroes lie there in the north Atlantic Ocean/ where before lay the poet-dreamt lands,' but also that in Norse belief, such a figure only appears to those about to drown.^[121]

A land lost in the distance

The fact that Atlantis is a lost land has made of it a metaphor for something no longer attainable. For the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes (1865-1945), 'The Lost Atlantis' stands for idealisation of the past; the present moment can only be treasured once that is realised.^[122]Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of 'The Lost Land' (1910) in one's carefree youthful past.^[123] Similarly, for the Irish poet Eavan Boland in 'Atlantis, a lost sonnet' (2007), the idea was defined when 'the old fable-makers searched hard for a word/ to convey that what is gone is gone forever'.^[124]

For some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley in his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from dissatisfaction with one's condition,

And, because life is partly sweet

And ever girt about with pain,

We take the sweetness, and are fain

To set it free from grief's alloy

in a dream of Atlantis.^[125] Similarly for the Australian Gary Catalano in a 1982 prose poem, it is 'a vision that sank under the weight of its own perfection'.^[126]W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of such frustration through the metaphor of journeying toward Atlantis in his poem of 1941.^[127] While travelling, he advises the one setting out, you will meet with many definitions of the goal in view, only realising at the end that the way has all the time led inward.^[128]

Epic narratives

A few late nineteenth century verse narratives complement the genre fiction that was beginning to be written at the same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related by long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson's Atlantis (1888) an ancient Greek mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island, which is all that remains of the former kingdom. He learns of its end and views the shattered remnant of its former glory, from which a few had escaped to set up the Mediterranean civilisations.^[129] In the second, Mona, Queen of Lost Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment of Long Forgotten History (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840-1925), the story is told in a series of visions. A Seer is taken to Mona's burial chamber in the ruins of Atlantis, where she revives and describes the catastrophe. There follows a survey of the lost civilisations of Hyperborea and Lemuria as well as Atlantis, accompanied by much spiritualist lore.^[130]

William Walton Hoskins (1856-1919) admits to the readers of his Atlantis and other poems (Cleveland OH, 1881), that he is only 24. Its melodramatic plot concerns the poisoning of the descendant of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed in the waves.^[131] Asian gods people the landscape of The Lost Island (Ottawa 1889) by Edward Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An angel foresees impending catastrophe and that the people will be allowed to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves.^[132] A final example, Edward N. Beecher's The Lost Atlantis or The Great Deluge of All (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just a doggerel vehicle for its author's opinions: that the continent was the location of the Garden of Eden; that Darwin's theory of evolution is correct, as are Donnelly's views.^[133]

Atlantis was to become a theme in Russia following the 1890s, taken up in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, as well as in a drama by the schoolgirl Larisa Reisner.^[134] One other long narrative poem was published in New York by George V. Golokhvastoff. His 250-page The Fall of Atlantis (1938) records how a high priest, distressed by the prevailing degeneracy of the ruling classes, seeks to create an androgynous being from royal twins as a means to overcome this polarity. When he is unable to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, the continent is destroyed.^[135]

Artistic representations

Music

The Spanish composer Manuel de Falla worked on a dramatic cantata based on Verdaguer's L'Atlántida, during the last 20 years of his life.^[136] The name has been affixed to symphonies by Janis Ivanovs (1941),^[137] Richard Nanes,^[138] and Vaclav Buzek (2009).^[139] There was also the symphonic celebration of Alan Hovhaness: 'Fanfare for the New Atlantis' (Op. 281, 1975).^[140]

The Bohemian-American composer and arranger Vincent Frank Safranek wrote Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite in Four Parts; I. Nocturne and Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. 'I Love Thee' (The Prince and Aana), IV. The Destruction of Atlantis, for military (concert) band in 1913.^[141]

Painting and sculpture

Paintings of the submersion of Atlantis are comparatively rare. In the seventeenth century there was François de Nomé's 'The Fall of Atlantis', which shows a tidal wave surging toward a Baroque city frontage.^[142] The style of architecture apart, it is not very different from Nicholas Roerich's 'The Last of Atlantis' of 1928.^[143]

The most dramatic depiction of the catastrophe was Leon Bakst's 'Ancient Terror' (Terror Antiquus, 1908), although it does not name Atlantis directly. It is a mountain-top view of a rocky bay breached by the sea, which is washing inland about the tall structures of an ancient city. A streak of lightning crosses the upper half of the painting, while below it rises the impassive figure of an enigmatic goddess who holds a blue dove between her breasts. Vyacheslav Ivanov identified the subject as Atlantis in a public lecture on the painting given in 1909, the year it was first exhibited, and he has been followed by other commentators in the years since.^[144]

Sculptures referencing Atlantis have often been stylized single figures. One of the earliest was Einar Jónsson's The King of Atlantis (1919–1922), now in the garden of his museum in Reykjavik. It represents a single figure, clad in a belted skirt and wearing a large triangular helmet, who sits on an ornate throne supported between two young bulls.^[145] The walking female entitled Atlantis (1946) by Ivan Meštrović^[146] was from a series inspired by ancient Greek figures ^[147] with the symbolical meaning of unjustified suffering.^[148]

In the case of the Brussels fountain feature known as The Man of Atlantis (2003) by the Belgian sculptor Luk van Soom [nl], the 4-metre tall figure wearing a diving suit steps from a plinth into the spray.^[149] It looks light-hearted but the artist's comment on it makes a serious point: 'Because habitable land will be scarce, it is no longer improbable that we will return to the water in the long term. As a result, a portion of the population will mutate into fish-like creatures. Global warming and rising water levels are practical problems for the world in general and here in the Netherlands in particular'.^[150]

Robert Smithson's Hypothetical Continent (Map of broken clear glass, Atlantis) was first created as a photographical project on Loveladies Island NJ in 1969,^[151] and then recreated as a gallery installation of broken glass.^[152] On this he commented that he liked 'landscapes that suggest prehistory', and this is borne out by the original conceptual drawing of the work that includes an inset map of the continent sited off the coast of Africa and at the straits into the Mediterranean.^[153]

See also

Underwater geography:

General:

Notes

1. ^Hale, John R. (2009). Lords of the Sea: The Epic Story of the Athenian Navy and the Birth of Democracy. New York: Penguin. p. 368. ISBN978-0-670-02080-5. Plato also wrote the myth of Atlantis as an allegory of the archetypal thalassocracy or naval power.
2. ^Plato's contemporaries pictured the world as consisting of only Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia (see the map of Hecataeus of Miletus). Atlantis, according to Plato, had conquered all Western parts of the known world, making it the literary counter-image of Persia. See Welliver, Warman (1977). Character, Plot and Thought in Plato's Timaeus-Critias. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 42. ISBN978-90-04-04870-6.
3. ^Hackforth, R. (1944). 'The Story of Atlantis: Its Purpose and Its Moral'. Classical Review. 58 (1): 7–9. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00089356. JSTOR701961.
4. ^David, Ephraim (1984). 'The Problem of Representing Plato's Ideal State in Action'. Riv. Fil.112: 33–53.
5. ^Mumford, Lewis (1965). 'Utopia, the City and the Machine'. Daedalus. 94 (2): 271–292. JSTOR20026910.
6. ^Hartmann, Anna-Maria (2015). 'The Strange Antiquity of Francis Bacon's New Atlantis'. Renaissance Studies. 29 (3): 375–393. doi:10.1111/rest.12084.
7. ^The frame story in Critias tells about an alleged visit of the Athenian lawmaker Solon (c. 638 BC – 558 BC) to Egypt, where he was told the Atlantis story that supposedly occurred 9,000 years before his time.
8. ^Feder, Kenneth (2011). 'Lost: One Continent - Reward'. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 141–164. ISBN978-0-07-811697-1.
9. ^Clay, Diskin (2000). 'The Invention of Atlantis: The Anatomy of a Fiction'. In Cleary, John J.; Gurtler, Gary M. (eds.). Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy. 15. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1–21. ISBN978-90-04-11704-4.
10. ^'As Smith discusses in the opening article in this theme issue, the lost island-continent was – in all likelihood – entirely Plato's invention for the purposes of illustrating arguments around Grecian polity. Archaeologists broadly agree with the view that Atlantis is quite simply 'utopia' (Doumas, 2007), a stance also taken by classical philologists, who interpret Atlantis as a metaphorical rather than an actual place (Broadie, 2013; Gill, 1979; Nesselrath, 2002). One might consider the question as being already reasonably solved but despite the general expert consensus on the matter, countless attempts have been made at finding Atlantis.' (Dawson & Hayward, 2016)
11. ^Laird, A. (2001). 'Ringing the Changes on Gyges: Philosophy and the Formation of Fiction in Plato's Republic'. Journal of Hellenic Studies. 121: 12–29. doi:10.2307/631825. JSTOR631825.
12. ^ ^abcLuce, John V. (1978). 'The Literary Perspective'. In Ramage, Edwin S. (ed.). Atlantis, Fact or Fiction?. Indiana University Press. p. 72. ISBN978-0-253-10482-3.
13. ^Griffiths, J. Gwyn (1985). 'Atlantis and Egypt'. Historia. 34 (1): 3–28. JSTOR4435908.
14. ^Görgemanns, Herwig (2000). 'Wahrheit und Fiktion in Platons Atlantis-Erzählung'. Hermes. 128 (4): 405–419. JSTOR4477385.
15. ^Zangger, Eberhard (1993). 'Plato's Atlantis Account – A Distorted Recollection of the Trojan War'. Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 12 (1): 77–87. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1993.tb00283.x.
16. ^Gill, Christopher (1979). 'Plato's Atlantis Story and the Birth of Fiction'. Philosophy and Literature. 3 (1): 64–78. doi:10.1353/phl.1979.0005.
17. ^Naddaf, Gerard (1994). 'The Atlantis Myth: An Introduction to Plato's Later Philosophy of History'. Phoenix. 48 (3): 189–209. doi:10.2307/3693746. JSTOR3693746.
18. ^ ^abMorgan, K. A. (1998). 'Designer History: Plato's Atlantis Story and Fourth-Century Ideology'. JHS. 118 (1): 101–118. doi:10.2307/632233. JSTOR632233.
19. ^Plato's Timaeus is usually dated 360 BC; it was followed by his Critias.
20. ^ ^abcLey, Willy (June 1967). 'Another Look at Atlantis'. For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 74–84.
21. ^Timaeus24e–25a, R. G. Bury translation (Loeb Classical Library).
22. ^'Atlantis—Britannica Online Encyclopedia'. Britannica.com.
23. ^Also it has been interpreted that Plato or someone before him in the chain of the oral or written tradition of the report, accidentally changed the very similar Greek words for 'bigger than' ('meson') and 'between' ('mezon') – Luce, J.V. (1969). The End of Atlantis – New Light on an Old Legend. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 224.
24. ^The name is a back-formation from Gades, the Greek name for Cadiz.
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31. ^Cameron 2002^{[full citation needed]}
32. ^Castleden 2001, p,168
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112. ^Archived online
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114. ^Online edition
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116. ^Archived online
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118. ^Isidor Cònsul, 'The translations of Verdaguer
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120. ^Latin American Anthology, p.1
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136. ^There is a performance on You Tube
137. ^Symphony 4, of which there is a performance on You Tube
138. ^Symphony 1, 'Atlantis, the sunken city', recorded by the London Philharmonic Orchestra during the 1990s
139. ^A performance on You Tube
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145. ^Flicker
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148. ^Meštrović Gallery
149. ^Brussels Pictures
150. ^Kunstbus article quoting 'Luk van Soom'
151. ^Artist's site
152. ^Dia Beacon Gallery
153. ^Artist's site

Further reading

Ancient sources

• Plato, Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.
• Plato, Critias, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.

Modern sources

• Calvo, T., ed. (1997). Interpreting the Timaeus-Critias, Proceedings of the IV. Symposium Platonicum in Granada September 1995. Academia St. Augustin. ISBN978-3-89665-004-7.
• Castleden, Rodney (2001). Atlantis Destroyed. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-24759-7.
• Forsyth, P. Y. (1980). Atlantis: The Making of Myth. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN978-0-7735-0355-7.
• Gill, C. (1980). Plato, The Atlantis Story: Timaeus 17-27 Critias. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN978-0-906515-59-4.
• Jordan, P. (1994). The Atlantis Syndrome. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN978-0-7509-3518-0.
• Ramage, E. S., ed. (1978). Atlantis: Fact or Fiction?. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0-253-10482-3.
• Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2007). The Atlantis Story: A Short History of Plato's Myth. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. ISBN978-0-85989-805-8.